1) Formal language
is the type of language which is used publicly for some serious purpose, for
example, in official reports, business letters and regulations. Formal English
is nearly always written. Exceptionally it is used in speech.
is the type of language which is used publicly for some serious purpose, for
example, in official reports, business letters and regulations. Formal English
is nearly always written. Exceptionally it is used in speech.
2) Informal
language i.e colloquial language is the language of private conversation, of
personal letters etc. It is generally the language of advertisement, popular,
newspaper, public communication.
language i.e colloquial language is the language of private conversation, of
personal letters etc. It is generally the language of advertisement, popular,
newspaper, public communication.
Differences of
vocabulary between Formal and Informal language:
vocabulary between Formal and Informal language:
i)
Much
of the vocabulary of formal English is French, Latin and Greek origin. We can
translate them by using words or phrase of Anglo-Saxon origin.
Much
of the vocabulary of formal English is French, Latin and Greek origin. We can
translate them by using words or phrase of Anglo-Saxon origin.
Compare
:
:
Formal
|
|
Informal
|
|
|
|
Commence
|
Æ
|
Begin
|
Continue
|
Æ
|
Keep up
|
Conclude
|
Æ
|
End
|
Amid
|
Æ
|
in the midst of
|
|
|
|
ii)
Many
phrasal and prepositional verbs are characteristic of informal style:
Many
phrasal and prepositional verbs are characteristic of informal style:
Formal
or common core word |
|
Informal
equivalent |
|
|
|
|
|
discover
|
Æ
|
find out
|
Informal term has emotive
qualities, not present in formal language, because formal language often insists on greater preciseness. The informal word job, for instance has no formal equivalent; instead we have to choose a more precise and restrictive term, according to the context : employment, post, position, appointment, profession, vocation etc. |
explode
|
Æ
|
blow up
|
|
encounter
|
Æ
|
come across
|
|
invent
|
Æ
|
make up
|
|
enter
|
Æ
|
go in (to)
|
|
tolerate
|
Æ
|
Put up with
|
|
investigate
|
Æ
|
look into
|
|
surrender
|
Æ
|
give in
|
|
|
|
|
|
iii)
There
are grammatical differences between formal and informal English; for example,
the use of who and whom, and the placing of a preposition at the beginning or
at the end of a clause:
There
are grammatical differences between formal and informal English; for example,
the use of who and whom, and the placing of a preposition at the beginning or
at the end of a clause:
Formal : She longed for a friend in whom she could
confide.
confide.
Informal : She longed for a friend in {who} she
could confide in.
could confide in.
Formal : In what country was he born?
Informal : what country was he born in?
iv)
Usage
: Formal
Usage
: Formal
Amount words :
withcont Nouns
|
Æ
|
Many people
……………………………………….. |
Æ
|
A majority of
……………………………………….. |
|
Æ
|
The majority of ……………………………………..
|
|
Æ
|
A minority of
……………………………………….. |
|
|
|
|
with
mass Nouns : Much of the informations ………………………..
mass Nouns : Much of the informations ………………………..
informal : a lot of, lots of
In Informal style a lot of/ lots of is preferred to
many or much in positive statements.
many or much in positive statements.
Many people derive much
pleasure from attending music festivals {formal}.
pleasure from attending music festivals {formal}.
Music festivals give a lot of fun to lots of people
{informal}.
{informal}.
But in questions and after negatives (very) many
and much are not restricted to {formal} English.
and much are not restricted to {formal} English.
He doesn’t smoke very much.
|
Informal / formal
|
Do many people attend the
meetings? |
|
|
|
v)
First
Person Pronouns; We (for I),
First
Person Pronouns; We (for I),
As we showed in Chapter 2. {formal} Here we stands
for I.
for I.
“We” sometimes refer to “you” Example: a doctor to a
patient: How are we (= you) feeling today then?
patient: How are we (= you) feeling today then?
vi)
Pronouns
with indefinite references :
Pronouns
with indefinite references :
You never know what many happen {in formal}.
“One” never knows what many happen {formal}
Here “one” means people in general including you and
me. you” is its {informal} equivalent:
me. you” is its {informal} equivalent:
“They” can also be used indefinitely in {informal}
English, but with a different meaning from one and you. It means roughly people
(excluding you and me)
English, but with a different meaning from one and you. It means roughly people
(excluding you and me)
They say it’s going to rain tomorrow (People say)
vii)
Choice
of “this” and “that”
Choice
of “this” and “that”
‘This’ and ‘that’ can replace each other with no
difference of meaning in back pointing. But ‘this’ is commoner in {formal}
English.
difference of meaning in back pointing. But ‘this’ is commoner in {formal}
English.
This is what I want (forward or back-pointing)
That is what is thought (back pointing only)
Here is the news (forward pointing)
And that’s the end of the news (back – pointing)
viii)
Time
and place :
Time
and place :
The prepositions in (or within) can have the meaning
‘before the end of’ ={formal use}
‘before the end of’ ={formal use}
He travelled round the world in eighty days.
Phone me again within a week.
“Within” is more formal than ‘in’ and often
indicates a location bounded by limits or by giving distance (within 3 miles
etc.)
indicates a location bounded by limits or by giving distance (within 3 miles
etc.)
time – when adverbs :
a)
again,
just = at this very moment.
again,
just = at this very moment.
Now,
nowadays, then = at that time Today.
nowadays, then = at that time Today.
b)
afterwords,
before (hand), first, formerly, just = a
very short time ago / before late, lately, next, previously, recently, since,
soon, subsequently; then = after that, ultimately.
afterwords,
before (hand), first, formerly, just = a
very short time ago / before late, lately, next, previously, recently, since,
soon, subsequently; then = after that, ultimately.
of
these “subsequently and ultimately are {formal}
these “subsequently and ultimately are {formal}
ix)
Frequency
: Occasionally, now and then {informal}
Frequency
: Occasionally, now and then {informal}
Once Per day, on several occasions = {formal}
frequency phrases generally have no Preposition.
One exception is phrases with occasions.
x)
Manner,
means and instrument : With what did he write it. She cooks turkey in the way
my mother did. = {formal}
Manner,
means and instrument : With what did he write it. She cooks turkey in the way
my mother did. = {formal}
What did he write with = {formal}
She cooks the way my mother did {informal}
They hunted him as a tiger stalks its prey {formal}
xi)
Cause
: On account of {formal}
Cause
: On account of {formal}
xii)
Purpose
: So as to. in order that {more formal}
Purpose
: So as to. in order that {more formal}
xiii)
Reason
and consequence : Consequently, the weather having improved, thus, hence
{formal}.
Reason
and consequence : Consequently, the weather having improved, thus, hence
{formal}.
Being a man of fixed views {formal}, he refused
………………..
………………..
So = {informal} accordingly {formal}
xiv)
Conditions
: In case of {formal}
Conditions
: In case of {formal}
xv)
Contrast
:
Contrast
:
Formal or common core
|
|
Informal equivalent
|
|
Whereas
despite
Notwithstanding
Nevertheless
even though
|
|
allthough, though all the same
|
|
xvi)
Degree
: To what degree / extent {formal}
Degree
: To what degree / extent {formal}
He’s not much of one {informal}
xvii)
Proportion
:
Proportion
:
As time went on, things got
worse and worse.
As you go
farther north, so the winters become longer.
In addition,
|
tor,
as well, = meaning in
addition
to |
xviii)
Short
Question :
Short
Question :
With whom = Personal
Pre + what, which = Personal and non-personal
What, which + Prep = Personal and non-personal
Who, whom + Prep = {formal} = Personal
xix)
Hypothetical
meaning :
Hypothetical
meaning :
a)
If
it were to rain, ……………………….{formal}
If
it were to rain, ……………………….{formal}
b)
Were
to / was to + infinitive {informal}
Were
to / was to + infinitive {informal}
If
it were to rain, the match …………………………….
it were to rain, the match …………………………….
xx)
The
subjunctive : So be it then!
The
subjunctive : So be it then!
xxi)
Certainty
: indubitably, unquestionably etc. ……
Certainty
: indubitably, unquestionably etc. ……
xxii)
Wish
: The manager wishes to thank you.
Wish
: The manager wishes to thank you.
The
manager wants to thank you. {informal}
manager wants to thank you. {informal}
xxiii)
Permission
:
Permission
:
May we smoke?
Are we permitted to smoke
|
{formal}
|
xxiv)
Obligation
: Require, shall
Obligation
: Require, shall
The university requires all students to submit
………………. |
{formal}
|
I’ve got to finish this essay by tomorrow
|
{informal}
|
|
|
xxv)
Invitation
:
Invitation
:
May I invite you to
……………………………?
……………………………?
May I have the pleasure of this dance?
xxvi)
Reported
commands : Verbs, forbid, prohibit {formal}
Reported
commands : Verbs, forbid, prohibit {formal}
They were forbidden to smoke.
xxvii)
Promise
: Our firm will undertake to let you ……………
Promise
: Our firm will undertake to let you ……………
xxviii)
Greetings
on introduction : How do you do ?
Greetings
on introduction : How do you do ?
Hello {informal}
xxix)
Beginning
and ending of letters :
Beginning
and ending of letters :
Dear Sir, Your faithfully,
{informal letter} : Example
Dear George,
………………………….
…………………………
Yours
(ever)
(ever)
Janet.
xxx)
I
regret that ……………………..{formal}
I
regret that ……………………..{formal}
I am sorry I was unable to come to the meeting
{Informal}
{Informal}
Good wishes, toasts etc :
I wish you every success in your new carrier
|
{informal}
|
Pl. give my kindest regards to your wife
|
Give my life to your children
|
Good health, Your health
|
|
May we congratulate you ………..
|
|
Pl. accept my deepest sympathey …
|
I was extremely sorry to hear about
…………….. |
|
|
xxxi)
Vocatives
: Ladies and gentleman!
Vocatives
: Ladies and gentleman!
xxxii)
Listening
and adding : firstly / lastly etc.
Listening
and adding : firstly / lastly etc.
xxxiii)
Explanation
: ie, eg, viz.
Explanation
: ie, eg, viz.
xxxiv)
Contrast
: however, although, — yet.
Contrast
: however, although, — yet.
xxxv)
Participial
and verbless clauses : Being a farmer, he has ………….
Participial
and verbless clauses : Being a farmer, he has ………….
xxxvi)
Substitutes
: Every body looked after themselves
Substitutes
: Every body looked after themselves
Every body
looked after himself {more formal}
looked after himself {more formal}
Indefinite expression of amount,
especially no, none and any, often cause concord problem:
especially no, none and any, often cause concord problem:
I have ordered
the shrubs, but none (of them) has / have yet arrived.
the shrubs, but none (of them) has / have yet arrived.
Here has is typical of {formal} English
Here have is typical of {informal}
English
In informal
style plural pronoun is often used as a replacement of everybody, everyone,
somebody, someone, anyone, anybody, no one, no body:
style plural pronoun is often used as a replacement of everybody, everyone,
somebody, someone, anyone, anybody, no one, no body:
Everyone thinks they
have the answer.
have the answer.
Has anybody brought their camera?
|
In {formal} English the tendency is to
use “he” when the sex is not stated :
Everyone thinks he has the answer.
|
|
|
|
I send cards to Mavis and Margery but
neither (of them) has/ have replied. In fact, I doubt if either (of them) is/ are coming. |
|
|
xxxvii} “Given” topic : fronting of object {formal}
especially (written) English.
especially (written) English.
|
Most of the problems a computer
code solve easily.
Topic = Object
|
|
|
|
This subject we have
examined.
Topic = Object
|
|
|
|
Everything that can be done the
administration.
= Object
has attended to already
|
|
|
xxxviii} Subject = Verb inversion:
Slowly out of
its hanger rolled the gigantic air craft {formal}
its hanger rolled the gigantic air craft {formal}
Away went the
car like a whirlwind {formal}
car like a whirlwind {formal}
Here’s the milkman
Here comes the bus
There are our friends
|
{Informal}
|
|
|
xxxix} Subject -operator inversion :
Under no
circumstances must the door be left unlocked {formal}.
circumstances must the door be left unlocked {formal}.
xl} Commands :
Let’s have a
dinner {informal} |
Let somebody else attempt this task
{formal} |
Somebody let me out {informal}
|
|
xli} Comparison:
He is taller than I {formal}
|
He is taller than me {informal}
|
We scored three more goals than they
{formal} |
We scored three more goals than them
{informal} |
|
Concord : see xxxvi
|
|
xlii} Demonstratives :
In formal use that / those can appear as
relative antecedents
The butter we import is less expensive
than those we produce ourselves {formal} |
|
xliii)
Interrogatives
: Discussed earlier.
Interrogatives
: Discussed earlier.
xliv)
There
is two patients in the waiting room {informal}.
There
is two patients in the waiting room {informal}.
There are
two patients in the waiting room {formal}.
two patients in the waiting room {formal}.
xlv} Uncontracted forms are formal
: They aren’t …………………………
: They aren’t …………………………
Contracted forms
are {informal}, They are not
………….
are {informal}, They are not
………….
xlvi} Nominal-ing clauses :
I’m surprised at his/ John’s
making that mistake (possessive) |
I’m surprised at him/ Gohn’s
making that mistake (objective) |
|
xlvii} Subordination signalled by inversion :
Had I known
……………………..{formal}
……………………..{formal}
A
“colloquialism” is a word or phrase that is used in speech, not in formal
writing. Sometimes words begin as slang, become colloquialism, and after
sometime become acceptable as standard English. British usage and American
usage are not always the same. Some dictionaries use the label informal
and others use the label Colloquial.
“colloquialism” is a word or phrase that is used in speech, not in formal
writing. Sometimes words begin as slang, become colloquialism, and after
sometime become acceptable as standard English. British usage and American
usage are not always the same. Some dictionaries use the label informal
and others use the label Colloquial.
Colloquial Structure :
|
What did you do that for? (in
formal) |
|
|
Formal :
|
Why did you do that?
|
|
|
|
|
Colloquial :
|
Alison remembers who she saw
yesterday. |
|
Formal :
|
Alison remembers whom she saw
yesterday. |
|
|
|
|
Colloquial :
|
Harry can’t remember
………………(contraction) |
|
Formal :
|
Harry can not remember
…………………… |
|
|
|
:
Informal Words
|
formal Words
|
|
|
Cop
|
for police officer
|
Kid
|
child
|
a shrinking violet
|
for a person who is shy or timid
|
|
|
exam
|
for examination
|
gonna
|
for going to
|
Math
|
for mathematics
|
tech
|
for technical/ technology
|
wanna
|
for want to
|
|
|
The subjunctive
is rarely used in spoken English except in a few set phrases
is rarely used in spoken English except in a few set phrases
such as “as
if I were you” and “as it were”.
if I were you” and “as it were”.
Most of the
meanings that are shown in other languages by the subjunctive are shown in
English by the modals, by should (especially by British speakers).
Subjunctives forms express non- fact.
meanings that are shown in other languages by the subjunctive are shown in
English by the modals, by should (especially by British speakers).
Subjunctives forms express non- fact.
Subjunctive is often very formal.
It is used in legal documents, parliamentary proceedings and bureaucratic
communications.
It is used in legal documents, parliamentary proceedings and bureaucratic
communications.
Subjunctive :
|
It is recommended that our chairman be
given a vote of thanks. |
Subjunctive :
|
Robert’s employer suggested that he
transfer to another division. |
|
|
This can be
stated with modal :
stated with modal :
Robert’s employer suggested that
he should transfer to another division.
he should transfer to another division.
or
Robert’s
employer suggested a transfer for him.
employer suggested a transfer for him.
Subjunctive :
The report urged that the company hire another account.
The report urged that the company hire another account.
or
The report urged
the company to hire another account.
the company to hire another account.
Subjunctive: I
wish I had more help.
wish I had more help.
or
I wish I could
have more help.
have more help.
Common verbs that can be followed by the
subjunctive
with subjunctive
|
|
with another contraction
|
|
|
|
Advice: I advise that she come
Ask :
|
|
I advise her to come
I advise her to coming
I ask her to come ( in request sense)
|
|
|
|
Demand :
|
I demand that he come
|
I desire him to come.
|
Desire :
|
I desire that he come
|
I desire his coming
|
|
|
|
Forbid :
|
I forbid that he come
|
I forbid him to come
I forbid his coming
|
Insist :
|
I insist that she come
|
I insist on her coming
|
Prefer :
|
I prefer that she come
|
I prefer her to coming
|
Plan :
|
I plan that she come
|
I plan for her to come
I plan her coming
|
Propose :
|
,,
|
|
Recommend :
|
,,
|
|
Request :
|
,,
|
|
Require :
|
I require that he come
|
I require him to come
I require his coming
|
Suggest :
|
,,
|
|
Urge :
|
,,
|
|
|
|
|
It is + Past
Participle of the verbs above + that clause requires the subjunctive.
Participle of the verbs above + that clause requires the subjunctive.
It is required
that he come.
that he come.
It is suggested
that he come.
that he come.
It is recommended
that he come.
that he come.
It is necessary
that he come.
that he come.
Further use of Informal English
1)
Species
noun : you can use either the singular or plural of a count noun following a
plural species noun.
Species
noun : you can use either the singular or plural of a count noun following a
plural species noun.
I
like most kinds of cat /cats {informal}.
like most kinds of cat /cats {informal}.
The
second noun, when count, usually has no indefinite article : a strange kind
of mammal rather than a strange kind of
a mammal.
second noun, when count, usually has no indefinite article : a strange kind
of mammal rather than a strange kind of
a mammal.
In
informal English there is a mixed construction in which the determiner
(if any) and the verb are plural, although the species noun is singular.
informal English there is a mixed construction in which the determiner
(if any) and the verb are plural, although the species noun is singular.
These
kind of dogs are easy to train {informal}.
kind of dogs are easy to train {informal}.
This
kind of dog is easy to train {formal}
kind of dog is easy to train {formal}
2)
Time
–when, omitting the preposition :
Time
–when, omitting the preposition :
In
informal English, we usually leave out the preposition in phrases pointing to a
time related indirectly to the present moment, or to a time before or after a
definite time in the past or future :
informal English, we usually leave out the preposition in phrases pointing to a
time related indirectly to the present moment, or to a time before or after a
definite time in the past or future :
I saw her
|
the January before last.
the day after her birthday
|
|
|
|
|
The festival will be held
|
the day after tomorrow.
(in) the following spring.
|
|
3)
Duration
:
Duration
:
I have not seen you long. {formal}
|
I haven’t seen you for ages/ (for
long} {informal} |
|
4)
Place
:
Place
:
The
police were standing on guard around the building.
police were standing on guard around the building.
“about”
and “around” in informal English often have a vaguer meaning of “in the area
of”
and “around” in informal English often have a vaguer meaning of “in the area
of”
You
don’t see many trams about now a days. {informal} (meaning about the
place).
don’t see many trams about now a days. {informal} (meaning about the
place).
5)
Result
:
Result
:
I
took no notice of him, so (that) he flew into a rage.
took no notice of him, so (that) he flew into a rage.
This
is equivalent to : He flew into a rage because I took no notice of him.
is equivalent to : He flew into a rage because I took no notice of him.
In
this context “so” is {informal}
this context “so” is {informal}
Take
this medicine, and (then) you’ll feel better. {informal}
this medicine, and (then) you’ll feel better. {informal}
Take
this medicine regularly, you will feel better, then. (then here is informal)
this medicine regularly, you will feel better, then. (then here is informal)
6)
Negative
purpose :
Negative
purpose :
In
order / In order that {formal}
order / In order that {formal}
In
informal English in case can introduce the idea of negative purpose.
informal English in case can introduce the idea of negative purpose.
He
left early in case he should miss the last train ( ………so that he should
miss) = {informal}
left early in case he should miss the last train ( ………so that he should
miss) = {informal}
7)
Contrast
:
Contrast
:
We
are enjoying ourselves, although / though the weather is bad.
are enjoying ourselves, although / though the weather is bad.
When
we make contrasting statements by making one of them into a sub clause
beginning “although/ though” it is informal.
we make contrasting statements by making one of them into a sub clause
beginning “although/ though” it is informal.
8)
Condition,
contract :
Condition,
contract :
All the same, Any way despite
{formal}
{formal}
Notwithstanding {formal}
Nevertheless {formal}
All the same {informal}
She looks pretty anyway
{informal}
{informal}
(
Anywhy here means whatever the circumstances)
Anywhy here means whatever the circumstances)
9)
Degree
:
Degree
:
Degree
adverbs may act as Pre-modifier a lot, quite a lot, Pretty a bit, {informal}
adverbs may act as Pre-modifier a lot, quite a lot, Pretty a bit, {informal}
10) Comparison :
(a) Jack must be six foot tall.
(b) Is he
as tall as that? {formal} (that =
6 foot)
as tall as that? {formal} (that =
6 foot)
Is he that tall {informal}(that = 6 foot)
11) Addition : too,
as well
as well
They
drank three bottles of wine, too/ as well . {informal}
drank three bottles of wine, too/ as well . {informal}
In addition
|
, they drank three
………………….. |
{formal}
|
as well as
|
|
|
Besides
|
|
|
|
|
|
12) Appearance :
He
looks as if he is ill {informal}. Here looks refers to visual appearance
only.
looks as if he is ill {informal}. Here looks refers to visual appearance
only.
13) Negative
Intensifier ; a bit, a wink, a thing
Intensifier ; a bit, a wink, a thing
informal
|
They weren’t a bit apologetic.
I didn’t sleep a wink.
He didn’t give me a thing (means anything
at all) |
|
|
14) Permission :
Are
we permitted to smoke in here? {formal}
we permitted to smoke in here? {formal}
Is
it all right if we smoke in here? {informal}
it all right if we smoke in here? {informal}
15) Changing the
subject : by the way
subject : by the way
The
airlines charge half-price for students
airlines charge half-price for students
By
the way have you bought your ticket for New
York? {informal}
the way have you bought your ticket for New
York? {informal}
Incidentally
have you bought your ticket for New
York? {formal}
have you bought your ticket for New
York? {formal}
16) Reinforcement :
in any case, any way.
in any case, any way.
In any case
|
{informal}
|
|
any way
|
||
|
|
|
Besides, {formal} =>
|
if they play ………………………
|
|
|
|
|
17) Positive
Condition : then = and
Condition : then = and
Take
this medicine, and you’ll feel better. {informal}
this medicine, and you’ll feel better. {informal}
Take
this medicine, you’ll feel better, than. {informal}
this medicine, you’ll feel better, than. {informal}
18) Negative
condition : Put your over coat on, or …………………..
condition : Put your over coat on, or …………………..
You’d
better put your over coat on, or else you’ll catch cold {informal}
better put your over coat on, or else you’ll catch cold {informal}
19) Alternatives :
else {informal}
else {informal}
20) Unlinked clauses
:
:
Two
neighbouring clauses may be grammatically unlinked.
neighbouring clauses may be grammatically unlinked.
In
writing they may be separated by, -___ ; : etc.
writing they may be separated by, -___ ; : etc.
But
this does not mean that there is no connection of meaning between them; it
means rather that the connection is implicit.
this does not mean that there is no connection of meaning between them; it
means rather that the connection is implicit.
In
{informal} speech the speaker frequently relies on such implied connections,
whereas in (writing) he would make the connection clear by sentence adverbials
or co-ordination
{informal} speech the speaker frequently relies on such implied connections,
whereas in (writing) he would make the connection clear by sentence adverbials
or co-ordination
Informal
Æ
He loaded the pistol carefully; (then) he took aim …………..a shot rang.
(Time)
Æ
He loaded the pistol carefully; (then) he took aim …………..a shot rang.
(Time)
He
had to look for a job Æ
(be cause) he had run out of money. (reason)
had to look for a job Æ
(be cause) he had run out of money. (reason)
Take
this medicine : (if you do) it’ll make you feel better. (condition)
this medicine : (if you do) it’ll make you feel better. (condition)
21) Substitutes :
The
dummy auxiliary verb “do” can act as a substitute for the whole of a clause
apart form the subject.
dummy auxiliary verb “do” can act as a substitute for the whole of a clause
apart form the subject.
(A)
:
who wants to play tennis this afternoon?
:
who wants to play tennis this afternoon?
(B)
: I do
: I do
I don’t
You
can also omit the whole clause following the subject.
can also omit the whole clause following the subject.
He
can look as well as she {formal}
can look as well as she {formal}
He can look as well as her {informal}
(A)
:
Who wants to play tennis?
:
Who wants to play tennis?
(B)
: Me {informal}
: Me {informal}
: Not me
(C)
:
‘Do’ is transitive and requires an object.
:
‘Do’ is transitive and requires an object.
Which
may be one of the substitute words it, that, or so.
may be one of the substitute words it, that, or so.
“Do
that” is emphatic and informal.
that” is emphatic and informal.
They
say he sleeps in his shoes and socks.
say he sleeps in his shoes and socks.
Why
ever does he do that? {informal}
ever does he do that? {informal}
Why
ever does he do so? {formal}
ever does he do so? {formal}
(D)
With
infinitive clauses you can omit the whole of the clause following to :
With
infinitive clauses you can omit the whole of the clause following to :
(A)
Why
don’t you come and stay with us?
Why
don’t you come and stay with us?
(B)
I’d
love to, (do so).
I’d
love to, (do so).
You
can borrow my pen, if you want to (do so)
can borrow my pen, if you want to (do so)
In
informal English the whole infinitive clause including to can be
omitted.
informal English the whole infinitive clause including to can be
omitted.
You
can borrow my pen, if you want (to) .
can borrow my pen, if you want (to) .
Shall
I ask Peter (to do so)
I ask Peter (to do so)
22) Emphatic type :
In
{informal} conversation, it is quite common for a speaker to front an element
and to give it nuclear stress, thus giving it double emphasis :
{informal} conversation, it is quite common for a speaker to front an element
and to give it nuclear stress, thus giving it double emphasis :
Joe his name is.
Relaxation you call it.
An utter fool I felt too.
Excellent food they serve here.
23) Demonstratives :
A
common type of sentence in {informal} English is one in which a wh-clause is
linked by the verb ‘be’ to a demonstrative pronoun (this, that). These
sentences are similar to wh-cleft sentences both in structure and in their
focusing effect :
common type of sentence in {informal} English is one in which a wh-clause is
linked by the verb ‘be’ to a demonstrative pronoun (this, that). These
sentences are similar to wh-cleft sentences both in structure and in their
focusing effect :
This
is where I met my wife.
is where I met my wife.
This
is how you start the engine.
is how you start the engine.
So
that’s why he’s always talking about his mother fixation!
that’s why he’s always talking about his mother fixation!
That’s
what always happens when I ………………………………….
what always happens when I ………………………………….
24) Adverbs with
adjective form:
adjective form:
A
few {informal} adverbs with adjective form have a personifying function :
few {informal} adverbs with adjective form have a personifying function :
He’s
pretty (= quite) tall.
pretty (= quite) tall.
He
was dead (= absolutely) drunk.
was dead (= absolutely) drunk.
25) Comment clauses
:
:
Comment
clauses in {informal} English do have end-position.
clauses in {informal} English do have end-position.
He’s
a pacifist you see.
a pacifist you see.
I’m
not sure what to do to be honest.
not sure what to do to be honest.
Comment
clauses in {informal} English.
clauses in {informal} English.
You know
|
You bet
|
I know
|
I see
|
I think
|
I suppose
|
I’m afraid
|
as you see
|
as I said
|
to be frank
|
So to say
|
So to speak
|
Put frankly
|
What’s more likely
|
|
|
In
written English Comment clauses are marked off from the other clause by commas
and in speech by a separate tone unit.
written English Comment clauses are marked off from the other clause by commas
and in speech by a separate tone unit.
26) Interrogative
and Relative pronouns :
and Relative pronouns :
In
the objective case ‘Whom” is formal and ‘who’ informal.
the objective case ‘Whom” is formal and ‘who’ informal.
He couldn’t remember
|
On which shelf he kept it {formal}
|
|
which shelf he kept it on {informal}
|
||
|
|
|
I know the girl
|
Who he met {informal}
|
|
Whom he met {formal}
|
||
Who he spoke to {informal}
|
||
Whom he spoke to {formal}
|
||
To whom he spoke
{most formal} |
||
|
|
|
27) Nominal that
clauses with ‘that’ omitted.
clauses with ‘that’ omitted.
I told him
|
he was wrong
|
{informal}
|
I am sure
|
||
|
|
|
I know
|
you’re wrong
|
|
It’s a pity
|
||
|
|
|
28) Passive : the
get-passive
get-passive
The
passive auxiliary is normally ‘be’ but can sometimes be ‘get’. The passives
with get is normally found only in {informal} style.
passive auxiliary is normally ‘be’ but can sometimes be ‘get’. The passives
with get is normally found only in {informal} style.
: The boy got hurt on
his way home from work.
his way home from work.
:
It is upsetting when a man gets punished.
It is upsetting when a man gets punished.
29) Finite clause as
post modifier.
post modifier.
a)
Finite
clauses introduced by a wh-word.
Finite
clauses introduced by a wh-word.
Formal
|
Time : He is taking about the years when
he was a student. |
|
Place : We visited the house where
Beethoven was born. |
|
Reason : Is that the reason why you came.
{informal} |
|
|
b)
Finite
clauses introduced by ‘that’ or Zero.
Finite
clauses introduced by ‘that’ or Zero.
Informal : Time : It’s about time (that) you had a
holiday.
holiday.
Place : I’ll show you the place (that) we
stayed (at) last year.
stayed (at) last year.
Manner : I like the way (that) she does
her hair.
her hair.
(COLLECTED)